Article 21A (86th Amendment, 2002) of the Constitution of India provides the Right to Free and Compulsory Education for children of ages six to 14 years. The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 expands this vision to cover children from ages three to 18 years, thereby extending the goal of universal education from pre-primary to higher secondary (Class 12). The NEP aims to achieve this universalisation of school education up to the secondary level by 2030. Although education is meant to be free, many students still attend private schools, where substantial fees are charged. In addition, due to several reasons, many students also go for private coaching, which adds to the financial burden.

Given the constitutional guarantee of free education, how expensive is basic schooling in India? How much do parents actually spend to send their children to school -- an obligation that, in principle, lies with the government as mentioned in the Constitution? The NSS 80th Round (April-June 2025) survey, on "Comprehensive Modular Survey: Education", offers the latest data to explore these questions.

Enrolment trends in schools

At the national level, 55.9% of students are enrolled in government schools, 11.3% in private aided schools, and 31.9% in private unaided schools. Enrolment in private schools is much higher in the urban sector than in the rural sector. Among the total schoolchildren in urban areas, 51.4% are enrolled in private school, while this share is 24.3% in rural areas. However, the gender gap in private school enrolment is relatively small -- 34% of boys and 29.5% of girls.

In the rural sector, children are enrolled more in government schools than in private schools. Private school enrolment is 28.1% in pre-primary, 25.9% in primary, 21% in middle and secondary, and 25.8% in higher secondary. In contrast, in the urban sector, the share of children enrolled in private schools is much higher -- 62.9% in pre-primary, 55.3% in primary, 49.8% in middle, 44% in secondary, and 42.3% in higher secondary. As education levels increase, private school enrolment declines in urban areas.

When compared with the earlier round of the NSS Survey on Education (75th round; July 2017-June 2018), we observe an increased share of children enrolled in private schools. In rural areas, the share of children enrolled in private schools increased from 20.9% to 25.9% in primary level, from 16.7% to 21% in middle level, and from 17.3% to 21.1% in secondary level. In urban areas, the share of children enrolled in private schools increased from 50.5% to 55.3% at the primary level, and from 41.8% to 49.8% at the middle level. This rising enrolment in private schools is leading to the increasing costs of education.

Enrolment in government and private schools is closely linked with educational expenditure. The survey asked whether students had to pay any course fee. In rural areas, 25.3% of government school students and 98.2% of private school students reported paying course fees. In urban areas, 34.7% of government school students and 98% of private school students reported paying course fees.

The survey reveals that for fees per academic year in government schools, rural fees range from ₹823 (pre-primary) to ₹7,308 (higher secondary), while urban fees range from ₹1,630 (pre-primary) to ₹7,704 (higher secondary). In private schools, rural fees start at ₹17,988 (pre-primary) and go up to ₹33,567 (higher secondary), while urban fees range from ₹26,188 (pre-primary) to ₹49,075 (higher secondary).

When these figures are converted into monthly terms, the financial burden of private schooling becomes even more apparent. In rural areas, monthly expenditure on private schooling ranges from ₹1,499 for pre-primary to ₹2,797 for higher secondary. In urban areas, these figures rise significantly, from ₹2,182 to ₹4,089. When compared to the Monthly Per Capita Expenditure (MPCE) from the Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (HCES) 2023-24 survey, it is evident that the cost of private schooling at the pre-primary level is roughly equivalent to the monthly income of the poorest 5% of households, while the cost at the higher secondary level aligns with the MPCE of households in the third income decile. This stark contrast underscores the financial strain that many families face in accessing quality education.

Incidence and cost of private tuition

The survey collected information on whether a student was taking or had taken private coaching during the current academic year. In this survey, information on private coaching was collected separately and not as a component of expenditure on school education. The survey found that 25.5% of children in rural areas and 30.7% in urban areas take private coaching. In the rural and urban sectors, the proportion of students taking private tuition increases as we move from lower to higher levels of education. In rural areas, it is 10.7% at pre-primary, 21.6% at primary, 29.1% at middle, 36.7% at secondary, and 33.1% at higher secondary. In urban areas, it is 13.6% at pre-primary, 26.6% at primary, 31% at middle, 40.2% at secondary, and 44.6% at higher secondary.

The average expenditure on private coaching per reported student during the current academic year is higher in the urban sector than in the rural sector. It is ₹13,026 in urban areas and ₹7,066 in rural areas. The average expenditure on private coaching increases as we move from lower to higher levels of education. In rural areas, it is ₹3,980 for pre-primary, ₹4,825 for primary, ₹6,043 for middle, ₹8,616 for secondary, and ₹13,803 for higher secondary. In urban areas, it is ₹5,815 for pre-primary, ₹7,947 for primary, ₹10,765 for middle, ₹16,415 for secondary, and ₹22,394 for higher secondary.

Research shows that higher household income, better educated parents, and urban residence are strongly correlated with a greater demand for private tuition. Studies also observe a positive and significant effect of private tutoring on students' learning outcomes.

Consequently, parents who place a high value on education and possess the financial resources are more likely to invest in private tutoring for their children. Thus, the tendency to seek private tuition is particularly higher among students enrolled in private schools. Although private schooling charges relatively high fees, many teachers in private schools are underpaid and often underqualified, which leads students to rely on private tutoring for academic support. Further, some scholars argue that private tuition has also become a symbol of prestige among families.

Strengthen publicly funded schools

The findings of the NSS 80th Round Survey highlight the stark reality of educational costs in India. Despite the constitutional guarantee of free education, a significant proportion of students, (24.3% in rural and 51.4% in urban), attend private schools that require substantial fees. With private tuition further burdening household finances, education is becoming increasingly unaffordable for many families, particularly those from lower-income backgrounds.

This trend is not only exacerbating inequalities in access to quality education but also threatening the very principle of basic and universal education. As government schools face declining enrolment, children from economically disadvantaged families are being pushed into the private education system, often at the cost of significant financial strain.

Additionally, the growing private tuition phenomenon contributes to widening learning inequalities, where the wealthy have an undeniable advantage over disadvantaged households. Thus, strengthening the quality of learning in publicly funded schools can arrest this trend.

Addressing these challenges requires urgent reforms. Strengthening the quality and accessibility of government schools is paramount to ensuring that education remains a right, not a privilege. A 2024 study by economists Ankush Agrawal, Parul Gupta, and Debasis Mondal published in The Journal of Development Studies finds that private tuition is negatively associated with school quality indicators. This implies that students at 'better' schools rely less on tutoring. Thus, strengthening the quality of learning would help bridge the widening gap between students from different socio-economic backgrounds. It is only through these efforts that we can move toward achieving truly equitable and inclusive education for all children in India.

Vachaspati Shukla is Assistant Professor at the Sardar Patel Institute of Economic and Social Research (SPIESR), Ahmedabad, Gujarat. Santosh Kumar Dash is Assistant Professor at IRMA, 'Tribhuvan' Sahkari University, Gujarat

The stark reality of educational costs in India